Nicholas II

Pope, figures like the preceding as a most zealous advocate of papal supremacy. His original name was Gerard of Burgundy, and he was a native of that province. He entered the service of the Church, and for a time held the archbishopric of Florence. In 1059 he was elected successor to Stephen IX in the pontificate. An opposite faction had chosen John, bishop of Velletri, who assumed the pontifical office under the name of Benedict X. The Council of Sutri, however, disavowed him, and he was obliged to resign his claim. The principal opponent of this rival pope was Hildebrand, SEE GREGORY VII; he, had determined that Gerard of Burgundy should succeed Stephen IX, and the word of this wily churchman was law. The imperial party, which by request of the Roman nobles had consented to the advancement of the bishop of Velletri, was won over to the Hildebrandian candidate by Hildebrand himself; and the imperialists afterwards consented not only to the degradation, but also to the disfranchisement of their own candidate from all ecclesiastical offices. Such was the power of papal Rome under the guidance of the man celebrated in history as pope Gregory VII. Pope Nicholas II himself was a man of ordinary ability, and but little activity. His pontificate, it is true, witnessed the two great changes in the papal policy which laid the foundations of its vast mediaeval power — the decree for the election of the pope by the cardinals of Rome, and the alliance with the Normans, SEE PAPACY; yet these changes were effected mainly through the exertions of Hildebrand — the man behind the throne. The former of these changes was brought about immediately after the accession of pope Nicholas II by authority of the second Lateran Council (q.v.), which he summoned A.D. 1059. The decree was ostensibly published to restore the right of election to the Romans, but it contained a remarkable variation from the original form. The cardinal bishops (seven in number, holding sees in the neighborhood of Rome, and consequently suffragans of the pope as patriarch or metropolitan) were to choose the supreme pontiff, with the concurrence first of the cardinal priests and deacons (or ministers of the parish churches of Rome), and afterwards of the laity. Thus elected, the new pope was to be presented for confirmation to Henry, "now king and hereafter to become emperor," and to such of his successors as should personally obtain that privilege. The decree is truly the foundation of that celebrated mode of election in a conclave of cardinals which has ever since determined the headship of the Church ( SEE CONCLAVE; compare Cartwright, On Papal Conclaves [Edinb. 1868, 12mo], p. 11-13). It was intended not nilvy to exclude the citizens, who had, indeed, justly forfeited their primitive right, but as far as possible to prepare the way for an absolute emancipation of the papacy from the imperial control; reserving only a precarious and personal concession to the emperors, instead of their ancient legal prerogative of confirmation. It was, indeed, provided, in effect, that future emperors should exercise the right of confirmation if they should have previously sought and obtained it from the Holy See. But of course an emperor was hardly likely to sue for this privilege; and even should the custom of seeking it be established, occasions would not fail to arise in which popes might feel themselves able and willing to refuse it. This bold innovation was made at a favorable moment, when, in fact, there was no emperor who could protest against it. Nicholas took an oath from his new vassals the Normans, whereby they pledged themselves that after his death they would recognize and defend as pope no other than the one who should be elected by the cardinals in accordance with the new regulations. In truth popedom was restored to Italy, to Rome. The great organized and simultaneous effort of the higher clergy to become as it were the chief feudatories, and to choose their monarch, was thus made possible. Yet the decree of a council would have proved only a mass of idle words, had not the papacy secured command also of some strong military force to maintain its independence against domestic and foreign foes. Either the emperor must still dictate, or the Roman barons overawe the election. The pope with all his magnificent pretensions, was but a defenceless vassal-a vassal dependent on foreign resources for his maintenance on his throne. The second great act of the pontificate of Nicholas II therefore was the conversion of the hostile and unbelieving Normans into the faithful allies, the body-guard of the pope. Another important event of the reign of Nicholas II is the controversy with Berenger of Tours (q.v.) regarding the real presence of Christ in the eucharist. SEE TRANSUBSTANTIATION. It was settled favorably to Romanism. Though Berenger afterwards, when beyond the power of his adversaries, recanted and reassumed his former position, the effect of the Lateran decree was, for a time at least, almost to suppress his doctrine. Pope Nicholas II died in 1061.' See Vita Nicolai II Papce, ex Cardinali Aragonia, in Muratori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, 3:301; Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici, 17:148; Jaffd, Regesta pontificum Romanorum, p. 384-389; Bower, Hist. of the Popes (see Index in vol. vii); Riddle, Hist. of the Papacy, 2:115 sq.; Milman, Hist. of Latin Christianity, 3:295 sq.; Hallam, Middle Ages (Smith's edition), p. 339 sq.; Hifler, Gesch. der deutschen Papste, 2:295-360; Wetzer u. Welte (R. C.), Kirchen- Lexikon, 7:579-583.